Effect of habituation to tea tree (Melaleuca alternifolia) oil on the subsequent susceptibility of Staphylococcus spp. to antimicrobials, triclosan, tea tree oil, terpinen-4-ol and carvacrol
Introduction
The need for novel antimicrobial agents is particularly pressing owing to the continued occurrence and spread of resistance to existing agents. Most welcome would be agents from different chemical classes that have diverse mechanisms of action. One possibility is tea tree oil, the essential oil of the Australian native plant Melaleuca alternifolia (Myrtaceae). It has broad-spectrum in vitro activity against Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, including antimicrobial-resistant and multiresistant organisms [1], [2], [3]. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) are generally in the range 0.12–0.5% and minimum bactericidal concentrations range from 0.12% to 1%. It is used as a topical antimicrobial agent [4] and its use for decolonisation of meticillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) carriers has attracted particular attention [5], [6], [7].
Ironically, two reports have suggested that exposure to tea tree oil may contribute to the development of antimicrobial resistance in human pathogens [8], [9]. In these reports, bacteria exposed to low, subinhibitory levels of tea tree oil displayed subsequent increases in their MICs to tea tree oil and several antimicrobials. Similar issues have dogged the promotion of products containing triclosan (2,4,4′-trichloro-2′-hydroxydiphenylether) and quaternary ammonium compounds for use in domestic and personal care settings [10], [11]. Like triclosan, tea tree oil is also widely available in a large range of personal care, cosmetic and over-the-counter products. Many tea tree oil products are formulated for non-therapeutic uses and the concentrations of oil in them may not inhibit or kill bacteria. It is this low-level exposure that is alleged to promote resistance to tea tree oil and other antimicrobial agents [8], [9]. Therefore, it is important to clarify whether exposure of bacteria to subinhibitory levels of tea tree oil alters susceptibility to other antimicrobial agents. The aim of this study was to provide additional data on the antimicrobial susceptibility of Staphylococcus spp. habituated to tea tree oil.
Section snippets
Antimicrobial agents
Tea tree oil (batch no. 1216), used throughout the study, was kindly provided by P. Guinane Pty. Ltd. (Kingscliff, NSW, Australia). Concentrations of the components determined by gas chromatographic analysis (and the range specified by the international standard [12], shown in parentheses) were as follows: 2.4% α-pinene (1–6%); 0.3% sabinene (trace to 3.5%); 9.0% α-terpinene (5–13%); 1.1% limonene (0.5–1.5%); 3.1% p-cymene (0.5–8%); 3.7% 1,8-cineole (trace to 15%); 20.1% γ-terpinene (10–28%);
Habituation to tea tree oil
After failure of bacteria to grow in 0.25% tea tree oil using the method of McMahon et al. [9], two variations of the method were used. The heavier inoculum and change of medium (variation 1) did not greatly alter the outcome, with most isolates not surviving the serial subculture process. Representative results are shown in Table 1. On the other occasion (data not shown) only four MSSA isolates, one MRSA and two CoNS grew in the third passage with 0.25% tea tree oil yielding a turbid culture.
Discussion
The inability to serially subculture 30 staphylococci in 0.25% tea tree oil as performed previously [9] was unexpected. In marked contrast to their success at culturing 30 staphylococcal isolates in 0.25% tea tree oil, numerous attempts to perform this habituation procedure failed in our hands, mostly resulting in a lack of viable organisms after one or two passages. Although their method was used by us initially, an obvious difference between the tests was the bacterial strains used, which
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2017, Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical MedicineCitation Excerpt :The SEM images recorded in the present study show similarities with previously reported observations on the effects of other antimicrobial agents on E. coli cells, such as bifidocin A [33] and cinnamon oil [27,31]. Substances absorbed at 260 nm mainly include nucleic acids, and the optical density of the supernatant at 260 nm (OD260) is thus an indication of internal cell constituents release and disruption of cell membrane [20]. Other antimicrobial agents such as mustard EO [22], cold nitrogen plasma [34], clove oil [35], a nano-emulsion of thymus [18], combinations of basil and oregano EOs [2] have also been shown to increase the release of 260-nm absorbing materials from E. coli cells.
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Present address: bioMérieux, La Balme Microbiology Unit, Global Director Microbiology Research, 3 Route de Port Michaud, 38390 La Balme-les-Grottes, France.